Job satisfaction in a sample of nurses: A multilevel focus on work team variability about the head nurse's transformational leadership


Abstract


Using a multilevel approach with a sample of 560 nurses, this study investigates the relationship between job satisfaction and a number of variables, particularly transformational leadership, found in the nursing literature. Job satisfaction is one of the most widely investigated outcomes in the nursing literature, and is very important because of its relations with other well-being, quality of service and managerial outcomes. The individual level antecedents investigated in this study are: organizational tenure, positive affectivity, independence at work, and transformational leadership. A multi-level focus is used since, as a further predictor of job satisfaction, we consider the variability in the perceptions of work group members (i.e., the disagreement among team members) on the transformational leadership style of their head nurses. We hypothesize that followers' inconsistent perceptions of their head nurse's leadership have a negative relation with job satisfaction. Results show that at the individual level, positive affectivity, independence at work and transformational leadership are positively related to job satisfaction, and the hypothesis that the variability of perceptions within the work group of the head nurse's transformational leadership has a negative relation with job satisfaction is confirmed. This study bears out the idea that the variability of leadership perceptions within work groups should be considered as an additional parameter, even more so when the team dimension is central for the profession in question.

DOI Code: 10.1285/i20705948v13n3p713

Keywords: job satisfaction; transformational leadership; multilevel analysis; nursing context.

References


Akman, O., Ozturk, C., Bektas, M., Ayar, D., & Armstrong, M. A. (2016). Job satisfaction and burnout among paediatric nurses. Journal of Nursing Management, 24(7), 923–933. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12399

Amos, M. A., Hu, J., & Herrick, C. A. (2005). The impact of team building on communication and job satisfaction of nursing staff. Journal for Nurses in Professional Development, 21(1), 10-16. https://doi.org/10.1097/00124645-200501000-00003

Andrews, D. R., Richard, D. C. S., Robinson, P., Celano, P., & Hallaron, J. (2012). The influence of staff nurse perception of leadership style on satisfaction with leadership: A cross-sectional survey of pediatric nurses. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 49(9), 1103–1111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2012.03.007

Anthony, M. K., Standing, T. S., Glick, J., Duffy, M., Paschall, F., Sauer, M. R., … & Dumpe, M. L. (2005). Leadership and nurse retention: The pivotal role of nurse managers. JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration, 35(3), 146-155. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005110-200503000-00008

Asif, M., Jameel, A., Hussain, A., Hwang, J., & Sahito, N. (2019). Linking transformational leadership with nurse-assessed adverse patient outcomes and the quality of care: Assessing the role of job satisfaction and structural empowerment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(13), 2381. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132381

Avolio, B. J., & Bass, B. M. (2004). Multifactor leadership questionnaire. Manual and sampler set (3rd ed.). Redwood City, CA: Mind Garden.

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2017). Job demands–resources theory: Taking stock and looking forward. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 273–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000056

Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Euwema, M. C. (2005). Job resources buffer the impact of job demands on burnout. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(2), 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.10.2.170

Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York, NY: Free Press.

Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1993). Transformational leadership and organizational culture. Public Administration Quarterly, 17, 112-121.

Blegen, M. A. (1993). Nurses' job satisfaction: a meta-analysis of related variables. Nursing research, 42(1), 36-41. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1097/00006199-199301000-00007

Bliese, P. D. (2000). Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analysis. In K. J. Klein & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 349–381). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bliese, P. D., & Halverson, R. R. (1998). Group consensus and psychological well-being: A large field study 1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(7), 563–580.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01720.x

Bontrager, S., Hart, P. L., & Mareno, N. (2016). The role of preceptorship and group cohesion on newly licensed registered nurses' satisfaction and intent to stay. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 47(3), 132-139. https://doi.org/10.3928/00220124-20160218-09

Bormann, K. C., Poethke, U., Cohrs, C., & Rowold, J. (2018). Doing bad through being selective in doing good: The role of within-unit variability in ethical leadership. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 27(6), 683–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2018.1491550

Braun, S., Peus, C., Weisweiler, S., & Frey, D. (2013). Transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and team performance: A multilevel mediation model of trust. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(1), 270–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.11.006

Brawley, A. M., & Pury, C. L. S. (2016). Work experiences on MTurk: Job satisfaction, turnover, and information sharing. Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 531–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.031

Breevaart, K., Bakker, A., Hetland, J., Demerouti, E., Olsen, O. K., & Espevik, R. (2014). Daily transactional and transformational leadership and daily employee engagement. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 87(1), 138–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12041

Brief, A. P. (1998). Foundations for organizational science. Attitudes in and around organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Bruk-Lee, V., Khoury, H. A., Nixon, A. E., Goh, A., & Spector, P. E. (2009). Replicating and extending past personality/job satisfaction meta-analyses. Human Performance, 22(2), 156–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959280902743709

Burke, M. J., Brief, A. P., & George, J. M. (1993). The role of negative affectivity in understanding relations between self-reports of stressors and strains: A comment on the applied psychology literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(3), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.3.402

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers.

Carless, S. A., Wearing, A. J., & Mann, L. (2000). A short measure of transformational leadership. Journal of Business and Psychology, 14(3), 389-405.

Chemers, M. M. (2001). Leadership effectiveness: An integrative review. In M.A. Hogg & R.S. Tindale (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Group processes (pp. 376–399). Oxford, UK: Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470998458.ch16

Chiu, R. K., & Kosinski Jr., F. A. (1999). The role of affective dispositions in job satisfaction and work strain: Comparing collectivist and individualist societies. International Journal of Psychology, 34(1), 19-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/002075999400078

Cho, J., & Dansereau, F. (2010). Are transformational leaders fair? A multi-level study of transformational leadership, justice perceptions, and organizational citizenship behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(3), 409–421.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.03.006

Chu, C. I., Hsu, H. M., Price, J. L., & Lee, J. Y. (2003). Job satisfaction of hospital nurses: An empirical test of a causal model in Taiwan. International nursing review, 50(3), 176-182. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1466-7657.2003.00165.x

Cimete, G., Gencalp, N. S., & Keskin, G. (2003). Quality of life and job satisfaction of nurses. Journal of Nursing Care Quality, 18(2), 151–158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001786-200304000-00009

Clark, A., Oswald, A., & Warr, P. (1996). Is job satisfaction U-shaped in age? Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69(1), 57–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1996.tb00600.x

Conger, J. A. (1999). Charismatic and transformational leadership in organizations: An insider’s perspective on these developing streams of research. The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 145–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(99)00012-0

Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1987). Toward a behavioral theory of charismatic leadership in organizational settings. Academy of Management Review, 12(4), 637–647. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1987.4306715

Connolly, J. J., & Viswesvaran, C. (2000). The role of affectivity in job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 29(2), 265–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00192-0

Cortese C.G. (2013) Predictors of intention to leave the nursing profession in two Italian hospitals. Assistenza Infermieristica e Ricerca, 32(1), pp. 20-27. https://doi.org/10.1702/1267.13987

Cortese, C.G., Gerbaudo, L., Manconi, M.P., Violante, B. (2013) L’identificazione dei fattori di rischio stress lavoro-correlato in un’Azienda Sanitaria Ospedaliera: un approccio quali-quantitativo (The identification of work-related stress risk factors in an Hospital: A quali-quantitative approach). La Medicina del Lavoro, 104(2). pp. 141-157.

Cowin, L. S., Johnson, M., Craven, R. G., & Marsh, H. W. (2008). Causal modeling of self-concept, job satisfaction, and retention of nurses. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45(10), 1449–1459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2007.10.009

Curtis, E. A., Sheerin, F. K., & de Vries, J. (2011). Developing leadership in nursing: The impact of education and training. British Journal of Nursing, 20(6), 344–352. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjon.2011.20.6.344

Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499

DiMeglio, K., Padula, C., Piatek, C., Korber, S., Barrett, A., Ducharme, M., … & Corry, K. (2005). Group cohesion and nurse satisfaction: Examination of a team-building approach. JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration, 35(3), 110-120. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005110-200503000-00003

Dinc, M. S., Kuzey, C., & Steta, N. (2018). Nurses’ job satisfaction as a mediator of the relationship between organizational commitment components and job performance. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, 33(2), 75–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/15555240.2018.1464930

Duygulu, S., & Kublay, G. (2011). Transformational leadership training programme for charge nurses: Transformational leadership training programme. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 67(3), 633–642. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2010.05507.x

Eliyana, A., Ma’arif, S., & Muzakki. (2019). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment effect in the transformational leadership towards employee performance. European Research on Management and Business Economics, 25(3), 144–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iedeen.2019.05.001

Epitropaki, O., Kapoutsis, I., Ellen III, B. P., Ferris, G. R., Drivas, K., & Ntotsi, A. (2016). Navigating uneven terrain: The roles of political skill and LMX differentiation in prediction of work relationship quality and work outcomes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(7), 1078-1103.

Feinberg, B. J., Ostroff, C., & Burke, W. W. (2005). The role of within-group agreement in understanding transformational leadership. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78(3), 471–488. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317905X26156

Finch, W. H., & Bolin, J. E. (2017). Multilevel modeling using Mplus. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman and Hall/CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315165882

FNOPI (2018). Infermieri: Quanti sono e come e dove lavorano. In Proceedings of the First FNOPI Congress, Rome.

Force, M. V. (2005). The relationship between effective nurse managers and nursing retention. JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration, 35(7), 336-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005110-200507000-00005

Freimann, T., & Merisalu, E. (2015). Work-related psychosocial risk factors and mental health problems amongst nurses at a university hospital in Estonia: A cross-sectional study. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 43(5), 447–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494815579477

Gardner, W. L., & Avolio, B. J. (1998). The charismatic relationship: A dramaturgical perspective. Academy of Management Review, 23(1), 32–58. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1998.192958

Gatti, P., Bligh, M. C., & Cortese, C. G. (2019). When a leader job resource can be ambivalent or even destructive: Independence at work as a double-edged sword. PLOS ONE, 14(5), e0217482. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217482

Gatti, P., Clari, M., Garzaro, G., Dimonte, V., Lord, R.G. & Cortese, C.G (in preparation). “Feeling like a leader”: A research protocol for investigating leader identity in nurses and head nurses with a multilevel design. Journal of Advanced Nursing.

Ghislieri, C., Cortese, C. G., Molino, M., & Gatti, P. (2019). The relationships of meaningful work and narcissistic leadership with nurses’ job satisfaction. Journal of Nursing Management, 27(8), 1691–1699. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12859

Gill, A. S., Flaschner, A. B., & Shachar, M. (2006). Mitigating stress and burnout by implementing transformational‐leadership. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18(6), 469–481. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596110610681511

Giorgetti, M., & Massaro, D. (2007). Ricerca e percorsi di analisi dati con SPSS. Milano, IT: Pearson Italia Spa.

Giorgi, G., Ariza Montes, A. , Rapisarda, V., Campagna, M., Garzaro, G., Arcangeli, G., & Mucci, N. (2019). Work-related stress in the banking sector: a study on an Italian aged population of over 2,000 workers. La Medicina del lavoro, 110(1), 11-21.

Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(95)90036-5

Graen, G., & Cashman, J. F. (1975). A role-making model of leadership in formal organizations: A developmental approach. Leadership frontiers, 143, 165.

Green, A. E., Miller, E. A., & Aarons, G. A. (2013). Transformational leadership moderates the relationship between emotional exhaustion and turnover intention among community mental health providers. Community Mental Health Journal, 49(4), 373–379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-011-9463-0

Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16(2), 250–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7

Han, G., & Jekel, M. (2011). The mediating role of job satisfaction between leader‐member exchange and turnover intentions. Journal of nursing management, 19(1), 41-49.

Hayati, D., Charkhabi, M., & Naami, A. (2014). The relationship between transformational leadership and work engagement in governmental hospitals nurses: A survey study. SpringerPlus, 3(25), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-3-25

Hooper, D. T., & Martin, R. (2008). Beyond personal leader–member exchange (LMX) quality: The effects of perceived LMX variability on employee reactions. The Leadership Quarterly, 19(1), 20-30.

House, R. J., & Shamir, B. (1993). Toward the integration of transformational, charismatic, and visionary theories. In M. M. Chemers & R. Ayman (Eds.), Leadership theory and research: Perspectives and directions (pp. 81–107). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.

James, L. R., Demaree, R. G., & Wolf, G. (1993). rwg: An assessment of within-group interrater agreement. Journal of applied psychology, 78(2), 306.

Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 755-768. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.755

Kalleberg, A. L., & Mastekaasa, A. (2001). Satisfied movers, committed stayers: The impact of job mobility on work attitudes in Norway. Work and Occupations, 28(2), 183–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888401028002004

Kao, R.-H. (2017). The relationship between work characteristics and change-oriented organizational citizenship behavior: A multi-level study on transformational leadership and organizational climate in immigration workers. Personnel Review, 46(8), 1890–1914. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-01-2016-0012

Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 285–308. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392498

Karasek, R. A. (1998). Demand/Control model: A social-emotional, and psychological approach to stress risk and active behavior development. In J.M. Stellman (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of occupational health and safety (pp. 34.06-34.14). Geneva, CH: ILO.

Kiersch, C. E., & Byrne, Z. S. (2015). Is being authentic being fair? Multilevel examination of authentic leadership, justice, and employee outcomes. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 22(3), 292–303.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051815570035

Kim, S. C., Stichler, J. F., Ecoff, L., Brown, C. E., Gallo, A.-M., & Davidson, J. E. (2016). Predictors of evidence-based practice implementation, job satisfaction, and group cohesion among regional fellowship program participants. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing, 13(5), 340–348. https://doi.org/10.1111/wvn.12171

Klein, K. J., & House, R. J. (1995). On fire: Charismatic leadership and levels of analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 183–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(95)90034-9

Korek, S., Felfe, J., & Zaepernick-Rothe, U. (2010).

Transformational leadership and commitment: A multilevel analysis of group-level influences and mediating processes. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 19(3), 364–387. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320902996336

Laschinger, H. K. S. (2010). Positive working relationships matter for better nurse and patient outcomes. Journal of Nursing Management, 18(8), 875–877. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2834.2010.01206.x

Laschinger, H. K. S., Finegan, J., & Wilk, P. (2011). Situational and dispositional influences on nurses' workplace well-being: The role of empowering unit leadership. Nursing research, 60(2), 124-131.

LeBreton, J. M., & Senter, J. L. (2007). Answers to 20 questions about interrater reliability and interrater agreement. Organizational Research Methods, 11(4), 815–852. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428106296642

Liao, H., & Chuang, A. (2007). Transforming service employees and climate: A multilevel, multisource examination of transformational leadership in building long-term service relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(4), 1006–1019. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1006

Liu, Y., Aungsuroch, Y., & Yunibhand, J. (2016). Job satisfaction in nursing: A concept analysis study. International Nursing Review, 63(1), 84–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12215

Locke, E.A. (1976). The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction. In M.D. Dunnette (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297-134). New York, NY: Holt, Reinhart & Winston.

McCutcheon, A.S., Doran, D., Evans, M., Hall, L.M., & Pringle, D. (2009). Effects of leadership and span of control on nurses’ job satisfaction and patient satisfaction. Nursing Leadership, 22(3), 48–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.12927/cjnl.2009.21154

McGuire, E., & Kennerly, S. M. (2006). Nurse managers as transformational and transactional leaders. Nursing Economics, 24(4), 179.

McLennan, M. (2005). Nurses' views on work enabling factors. JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration, 35(6), 311-318. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005110-200506000-00008

Morton, J. L., & Hyrkas, K. (2012). Management and leadership at the bedside. Journal of Nursing Management, 20(5), 579–581. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2834.2012.01476.x

Ohunakin, F., Adeniji, A. A., Oludayo, O. A., Osibanjo, A. O., & Oduyoye, O. O. (2019). Employees’ retention in Nigeria’s hospitality industry: The role of transformational leadership style and job satisfaction. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 18(4), 441–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332845.2019.1626795

Oshagbemi, T. (2000). Is length of service related to the level of job satisfaction? International Journal of Social Economics, 27(3), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1108/03068290010286546

Pejtersen, J. H., Kristensen, T. S., Borg, V., & Bjorner, J. B. (2009). The second version of the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 38(3_suppl), 8–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494809349858

Portoghese, I., Galletta, M., Battistelli, A., & Leiter, M. P. (2015). A multilevel investigation on nursing turnover intention: The cross‐level role of leader–member exchange. Journal of nursing management, 23(6), 754-764.

Quińones, M. A., Ford, J. K., & Teachout, M. S. (1995). The relationship between work experience and job performance: A conceptual and meta‐analytic review. Personnel psychology, 48(4), 887-910. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1995.tb01785.x

Roberson, Q. M., Sturman, M. C., & Simons, T. L. (2007). Does the measure of dispersion matter in multilevel research? A comparison of the relative performance of dispersion indexes. Organizational Research Methods, 10(4), 564–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428106294746

Rosenberg, M. J., & Hovland, C. I. (1960). Cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of attitudes. In M. J. Rosenberg (Eds.), Attitude organization and change: An analysis of consistency among attitude components (pp. 1–14). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Shader, K., Broome, M. E., Broome, C. D., West, M. E., & Nash, M. (2001). Factors influencing satisfaction and anticipated turnover for nurses in an academic medical center. JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration, 31(4), 210-216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005110-200104000-00010

Shrout, P. E., & Fleiss, J. L. (1979). Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 420–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.420

Smith, P. C., Kendall, L. M., & Hulin, C. L. (1969). The measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement: A strategy for the study of attitudes. Chicago, IL: Rand Mcnally.

Steeves, R. H., Kahn, D. L., Benoliel, J. Q., & Ferrell, B. R. (1990). Nurses’ interpretation of the suffering of their patients. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 12(6), 715–731. https://doi.org/10.1177/019394599001200602

Stimpfel, A. W., Sloane, D. M., & Aiken, L. H. (2012). The longer the shifts for hospital nurses, the higher the levels of burnout and patient dissatisfaction. Health Affairs, 31(11), 2501–2509. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.1377

Tentama, F., Rizky Kusuma, D., & Subardjo. (2020). Job satisfaction as a mediating variable in the effect of transformational leadership on performance. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews, 7(6), 1082-1089. https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.76158

Terracciano A., McCrae R. R., & Costa P. T., Jr. (2003). Factorial and construct validity of the italian positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 19(2), 131–141. https://doi.org/10.1027//1015-5759.19.2.131

Thomas, G., Martin, R., & Riggio, R. (2013). Leading groups: Leadership as a group process. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 16, 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430212462497

van der Heijden B.I.J.M., van Dam K., & Hasselhorn H.M. (2009). Intention to leave nursing: The importance of interpersonal work context, work‐home interference, and job satisfaction beyond the effect of occupational commitment. Career Development International, 14(7), 616–635. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430911005681

van Veldhoven, M. J. P. M., Prins, J., van der Laken, P. A., & Dijkstra, L. (2015). QEEW2.0: 42 short scales for survey research on work, well-being and performance. Amsterdam, NL: SKB.

Warr, P. (1987). Work, unemployment, and mental health. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Watson, D. (2002). Positive affectivity: The disposition to experience pleasurable emotional states. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 106–119). London: Oxford University Press.

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Carey, G. (1988). Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety and depressive disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(3), 346–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.97.3.346

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063

Weberg, D. (2010). Transformational leadership and staff retention: An evidence review with implications for healthcare systems. Nursing Administration Quarterly, 34(3), 246-258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/NAQ.0b013e3181e70298

Whitman, D. S., Van Rooy, D., & Viswesvaran, C. (2010). Satisfaction, citizenship behaviors, and performance in work units: A meta analysis of collective construct relations. Personnel Psychology, 63(1), 41–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2009.01162.x

Wu, J. B., Tsui, A. S., & Kinicki, A. J. (2010). Consequences of differentiated leadership in groups. Academy of Management Journal, 53(1), 90–106. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.48037079

Yammarino, F. J., & Dansereau, F. (2008). Multi-level nature of and multi-level approaches to leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 19(2), 135–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.01.001

Zangaro, G. A., & Soeken, K. L. (2007). A meta-analysis of studies of nurses’ job satisfaction. Research in Nursing & Health, 30(4), 445–458. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20202

Zwingmann, I., Wegge, J., Wolf, S., Rudolf, M., Schmidt, M., & Richter, P. (2014). Is transformational leadership healthy for employees? A multilevel analysis in 16 nations. German Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(1–2), 24–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/239700221402800103


Full Text: pdf


Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribuzione - Non commerciale - Non opere derivate 3.0 Italia License.